Method of treating renal system damage

ABSTRACT

Methods of treating the side effects of a toxic medical therapy using nitrated lipids are disclosed herein. In particular, the methods comprise the use of nitrated fatty acids or esters thereof to treat side effects, including organ system damage, caused by chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and the administration of other toxic agents.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of co-pending U.S. application Ser.No. 16/447,821, filed Jun. 20, 2019, which is a continuation of U.S.application Ser. No. 15/492,732, filed Apr. 20, 2017, now U.S. Pat. No.10,369,125, which is a continuation U.S. application Ser. No.13/944,453, filed Jul. 17, 2013, now abandoned, which claims priorityfrom and is a continuation-in-part from U.S application Ser. No.12/996,848, filed Mar. 4, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,686,038, which is anational phase application under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2009/047825, filed Jun. 18, 2009, which claimspriority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/073,945, filed Jun.19, 2008, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in itsentirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under Grant Numbers R01DK066592 & HL079453 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. Thegovernment has certain rights in the invention

BACKGROUND

The present invention relates to methods of treating the side effects ofa toxic medical therapy using nitrated lipids. In particular, themethods comprise the use of nitrated fatty acids or esters thereof totreat side effects, including organ system damage, caused bychemotherapy, radiotherapy, and the administration of other toxicagents.

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy provide an effective means of treatingcancer. For example, cisplatin is among of the most successfulanticancer drugs and is now being widely used for the treatment oftesticular, head and neck, ovarian, cervical, non-small cell lungcarcinoma, and many other types of cancer. In addition, approximatelyhalf of cancer patients received radiotherapy as a single and adjuvanttherapy at some stage of their illness. However, a drawback of bothchemotherapy and radiotherapy is the production of toxicity in normaltissues. For example, the clinical use of cisplatin is limited by itssevere side effects, including neurotoxicity, ototoxicity, nausea andvomiting, hair loss, and nephrotoxicity. The mechanism ofcisplatin-induced organ damage has been shown to be multifactorial,involving oxidative stress and apoptosis. Adriamycin is an anthracyclineantibiotic and can cause severe side effects, including podocyte footprocess effacement, increase glomerular permeability leading toproteinuria, and inflammation via oxygen free radicals. Other kinds ofmedical treatment may also involve administration of toxic agents, i.e.,those that produce toxicity in normal tissues. Like chemotherapy andradiotherapy, the side effects associated with such treatments may limitthe use of the treatment. The present invention attempts to solve theseproblems, as well as others.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, methods and medicaments useful in the treatment of theside effects of toxic medical therapies are disclosed herein. Themethods comprise administration of at least one nitrated lipid to asubject in need thereof in amounts effective to treat a side effect of atoxic medical therapy. In some embodiments of the present methods, theside effect is reduced relative to the side effect prior toadministration of the nitrated fatty acid or ester thereof. The nitratedlipids may be used to prepare medicaments for treating a side effect ofa toxic medical therapy.

A variety of nitrated lipids may be used in the present methods,including, e.g., nitrated fatty acids and esters thereof. In someembodiments, the nitrated fatty acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid(e.g., oleic acid) or a polyunsaturated fatty acid. In illustrativeembodiments, the oleic acid is selected from 9-nitrooleic acid,10-nitrooleic acid, or combinations thereof.

Form the methods disclosed herein, a variety of lipids may be used toform the nitrated lipids, including, but not limited to a fatty acid oran ester thereof. Similarly, a variety of fatty acids are compatiblewith the disclosed methods, including, but not limited to,monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Procedures forsynthesizing nitrated lipids, sources for obtaining the lipids, andadministration routes for the nitrated lipids are also provided.

The effective amount of the nitrated lipid administered to the subjectmay vary. In some aspects, the effective amount is that which preventsthe subject from experiencing any of the disclosed side effects with anyof the disclosed toxic medical therapies. In other aspects, theeffective amount is an amount that reduces or eliminates the subject'sside effects relative to the subject's side effects prior toadministration of the nitrated lipid.

The methods disclosed herein may further comprise administrating avariety of therapeutic agents useful in the treatment of the underlyingcondition, disease, or disorder giving rise to any of the toxic medicaltherapies disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the accompanying figures, like elements are identified by likereference numerals among the several preferred embodiments of thepresent invention.

FIG. 1. A bar graph showing the plasma concentrations of Blood UreaNitrogen (BUN) in mice under the conditions indicated. N=5-6. Data aremean±n SE. B6129S2/J mice (male, 3-4-mo-old) received vehicle (Control)or a single i.p. injection of cisplatin alone (20 mg/kg in saline).After 20 min, the cisplatin group was randomly divided to receive an i.pinjection of OA-NO₂ (400 mg/kg in ethanol) or an equivalent amount ofethanol at 6-h intervals for 48 h. The results show that nitrated fattyacid OA-NO₂ improves renal function in a mouse model ofcisplatin-induced toxicity.

FIG. 2. The nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ improves renal morphology in amouse model of cisplatin-induced toxicity. Shown are representativeimages of renal morphology at ×200 and ×400 magnifications.

FIG. 3. A bar graph shows the nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ reduces plasmamyeloperoxidase (MPO) in cisplatin treated mice. MPO concentrations aredetermined by EIA. N=5-6. Data are mean±SE.

FIG. 4. Bar graphs of real time RT-PCR analysis of p47^(phox) (A),gp91^(hox) (B) in control mice and mice treated with cisplatin alone orin combination with OA-NO₂. N=5-6 in each group. Data are mean±SE.

FIG. 5. A bar graph shows kidney TBARS m control mice and mice treatedwith cisplatin alone or in combination with OA-NO₂. N=5-6 in each group.Data are mean±SE.

FIG. 6. Bar graphs show the effects of nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ oncisplatin-induced apoptosis in vivo and in vitro. A), Caspase activityin the mouse kidney. N=5-6 in each group. B), Caspase activity incultured human proximal tubular cells (HK2). Following pretreatment for1 h with vehicle or 1.5 μM OA-NO₂, the cells were exposed for 24 h to 1μM cisplatin. N=3 in each group. Data are mean±SE.

FIG. 7. Nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ ameliorates albuminuria in Adriamycin(ADR) nephropathy. FIG. 7 is a bar graph of the ELISA analysis shows thelevels of urinary albumin in different groups of mice at the indicatedperiod of time after ADR injection. Control: n=8; ADR: n=18; ADR+OA-NO₂:n=16. Values are means±SE.

FIGS. 8a -8 b. Nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ ameliorates hypoalbuminemiaand ascites in ADR nephropathy. FIG. 8a is a bar graph of the ELISAanalysis of plasma albumin in different groups of mice at day 8 afterADR injection. FIG. 8b is photographs of ascites in different groups ofmice at day 8 after ADR injection. Control: n=8; ADR: n=18; ADR+OA-NO₂:n=16. Values are means±SE.

FIGS. 9a -9 c. Nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ ameliorateshypertriglyceridemia and renal dysfunction in ADR nephropathy. FIG. 9ais a bar graph of the plasma triglyceride; FIG. 9b is a bar graph of theplasma creatinine; and FIG. 9c is a bar graph of the Blood Urea Nitrogen(BUN). Control: n=8; ADR: n=18; ADR+OA-NO₂: n=16. Values are means±SE.

FIGS. 10a -10 c. Nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ amelioratesglomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial lesion in ADR nephropathy.FIG. 10a is representative micrographs showing kidney histology indifferent groups of mice at day 8 after ADR injection. Kidney sectionswere stained with periodic acid-Schiff reagent (magnification: right×200, left ×1000 shown). FIGS. 10b-10c are bar graphs of theglomerulosclerosis index (GSI) and tubulointerstitial lesion index(TILI) in different groups of mice. Control: n=8; ADR: n=18; ADR+OA-NO₂:n=16. Values are means±SE.

FIGS. 11a -11 f. Nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ preserves podocyte markersin ADR nephropathy. FIG. 11a is an immunoblotting analysis of WT1 andβ-actin in the kidneys. FIG. 11b is a bar graph of the densitometricanalysis of WT1 protein. The densitometric value of WT1 protein wasnormalized by β-actin. FIG. 11c is a photograph of theimmunohistochemical analysis of WT1 in the kidney. FIG. 11d is a bargraph of the number of WT1 positive cells per glomerulus. FIG. 11e is abar graph of the qRT-PCR analysis of ZO-1 in the kidney. FIG. 11f is abar graph of the qRT-PCR analysis of desmin. Control: n=8; ADR: n=18;ADR+OA-NO₂: n=16. Values are means±SE.

FIGS. 12a -12 h. Nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ hampers renal fibrosis inADR nephropathy. FIGS. 12a-12b are bar graphs of the qRT-PCR analysis ofrenal mRNA levels of FN and collage III. FIGS. 12c-12d arerepresentative immunoblots of renal α-SMA and FN. B-actin served as aloading control. FIGS. 12e-12f are bar graphs of the densitometricanalysis of immunoblots in C-D. FIGS. 12g-12h are bar graphs of theqRT-PCR analysis of renal mRNA levels of TGF-B and α-SMA. Control: n=8;ADR: n=18; ADR+OA-NO₂: n=16. Values are means±SE.

FIGS. 13a -13 c. Effect of nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ on TBARS levels.FIG. 13a is a bar graph of the measurement of plasma thiobarbituricacid-reactive substances (TBARS). FIG. 12b is a bar graph of themeasurement of urinary TBARS. FIG. 13c is a bar graph of the measurementof kidney TBARS. Control: n=8; ADR: n=18; ADR+OA-NO₂: n=16. Values aremeans±SE.

FIGS. 13a -13 c. Effect of nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ on renal mRNAexpression of NADPH oxidase subunits. FIGS. 14a-14b are bar graphs ofthe qRT-PCR analysis of renal mRNA expression of p47^(phox) andgp91^(phox). FIGS. 14c-14d are representative immunoblots and bar graphsof the densitometric of gp91^(phox) and β-actin in the kidneys. Thedensitometric value of gp91^(phox) protein was normalized by β-actin.Control: n=8; ADR: n=18; ADR+OA-NO₂: n=16. Values are means±SE.

FIGS. 15a -15 c. Nitrated fatty acid OA-NO₂ attenuates renalinflammation in ADR nephropathy. qRT-PCR was performed to determinerenal mRNA expression in bar graphs for TNF-α (FIG. 15a ), IL-β (FIG.15b ) and MCP-1 (FIG. 15c ). Control: n=8; ADR: n=18; ADR+OA-NO₂: n=16.Values are means±SE.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The foregoing and other features and advantages of the invention areapparent from the following detailed description of exemplaryembodiments, read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. Thedetailed description and drawings are merely illustrative of theinvention rather than limiting, the scope of the invention being definedby the appended claims and equivalents thereof.

The following terms are used throughout as defined below.

“Treat” means to alleviate, in whole or in part, symptoms associatedwith a condition or disorder (e.g., disease), or halt of furtherprogression or worsening of those symptoms, or prevention or prophylaxisof the condition or disorder. Similarly, as used herein, an “effectiveamount” of a compound disclosed herein refers to an amount of thecompound that alleviates, in whole or in part, symptoms associated witha condition or disorder, or halts further progression or worsening ofthose symptoms, or prevents or provides prophylaxis for the disease ordisorder. For example, in treating a side effect of a toxic medicaltreatment, the prevention of, reduction of, or elimination of the sideeffect are examples of desirable treatment results. Finally, treatingdoes not necessarily occur by administration of one dose of thecompound, but often occurs upon administration of a series of doses.Thus, an effective amount, an amount sufficient to alleviate, or anamount sufficient to treat a disease, disorder, or condition may beadministered in one or more administrations. “Pretreatment” means todeliver or administer an effective amount of the compound prior to asubject being exposed to a toxic medical therapy. In one embodiment,pretreatment may be between 1-3 hours before a toxic medical therapy,alternatively between 1-3 days before a toxic medical therapy.Posttreatement may be any time after a subject being exposed to a toxicmedical therapy.

The methods disclosed herein comprise administration of a nitratedlipid. Nitrated lipids are lipids comprising at least one nitro (NO₂)group covalently bonded to the lipid. The methods disclosed hereinencompass administration of a single type of nitrated lipid or a mixtureof two or more different types of nitrated lipids. By way of example,one type of nitrated lipid is 9-nitro- 9-cis-octadecenoic acid. Thus,“type” identifies the compound by lipid, stereochemistry, and number andposition of NO₂ groups.

Nitrated lipids include nitrated fatty acids or esters thereof. A fattyacid is a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or alkenyl having aterminal COOH group. In some embodiments, the alkyl or alkenyl is aC₈-C₂₄ alkyl or alkenyl. A wide variety of fatty acids may be used,including, but not limited to monounsaturated fatty acids andpolyunsaturated fatty acids. In some embodiments, the monounsaturatedfatty acid is oleic acid. In some embodiments, the oleic acid is9-nitrooleic acid, 10-nitrooleic acid, or combinations thereof. An esterof a fatty acid is a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or alkenylhaving a terminal COOR group. In some embodiments, the alkyl or alkenylis a C₈-C₂₄ alkyl or alkenyl. R may include, but is not limited to, aC₁₋₈ alkyl or glyceryl.

Nitrated lipids and its derivatives may be synthesized according toknown procedures. For example, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0232579(incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) discloses a procedurecomprising the steps of reacting a lipid with a mercuric salt, aselenium compound, and a nitrating compound to produce a firstintermediate and reacting the first intermediate with an oxidant. Usefulmercuric salts, selenium compounds, nitrating compounds, oxidants,relative amounts of reactants, and reaction conditions are alsodisclosed in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0232579. Such syntheticprocedures may provide mixtures of two or more types of nitrated lipidswhich may be separated or purified by techniques known in the art, ifdesired. Nitrated lipids, its derivatives, and other lipids may besynthesized according to other procedures as demonstrated in U.S. PatentPublication Nos. 2009/326070, 2009/326070, 2012/0136034, 2011/0082206,and (incorporated herein by reference in their entireties)

The lipids described above may be obtained from a variety of sources.For example, lipids may be commercially available or may be obtainedfrom natural sources. Plant oils, including, but not limited to oliveoil, linseed oil, flaxseed oil, rapeseed oil, and perilla oil arepossible natural sources of fatty acid lipids. Fish oils or other marineoils are other possible sources of fatty acids. Nitrated lipids presentin any of these or other natural sources may be extracted and/orpurified for use in the methods disclosed herein.

The disclosed methods involve treatment or pretreatment of a side effectof a toxic medical therapy. A variety of side effects may be treated,including, but not limited to organ system damage, nausea, vomiting, andhair loss. By organ system, it is meant a group of related organs. Byway of example only, the urinary system is an organ system including thekidneys, the ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. Other examples oforgan systems include, but are not limited to, the digestive system, thenervous system, the auditory system, the circulatory system, theendocrine system, the excretory system, the skeletal system, therespiratory system, the reproductive system, the muscular system, thelymphatic system, immune system, integumentary system, and theintegumentary system. “Organ system damage” refers to damage to one ormore of the organs making up the organ system as a result of a toxicmedical therapy. Organ damage may include, but is not limited to,oxidative stress to the organ, cytotoxicity, and necrosis or apoptosisof organ cells. Other organ damage may include Cardiotoxicity (heartdamage), Hepatotoxicity (liver damage), Nephrotoxicity (kidney damage),Ototoxicity (damage to the inner ear), producing vertigo, Encephalopathy(brain dysfunction), Immunosuppression and myelosuppression, typhlitis,infertility, immunodepression, tendency to bleed, gasointestinaldistress, and the like.

These examples of organ damage and others may be readily identifiedusing well-known pathological techniques. By way of example only, kidneydamage may be identified by examining the overall renal morphology, thedilation of renal tubules, and the appearance of protein cast. Organdamage may also be identified by measuring certain biomarkers of organdamage in a subject. Useful biomarkers include, but are not limited tobiological substances or activities that provide a marker of organdysfunction, oxidative stress, necrosis or apoptosis. By way of exampleonly, a biomarker of organ dysfunction includes, but is not limited tothe rise of plasma creatinine and BUN for renal dysfunction, and therise of serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanineaminotransferase (ALT) for hepatic dysfunction. Biomarkers of oxidativestress include, but are not limited to, the NADPH oxidase subunitsp47^(phox) and gp91^(phox), and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances(TBARS). Biomarkers of inflammation include, but are not limited to,Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), Interleukin 1 (IL-1β) and monocytechemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1). A biomarker of apoptosis includes, but isnot limited to, the activity of caspase 3, 6, and 9, NF-κB, peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). Another biomarker of organdamage is myeloperoxidase, MPO. An increase in the level of MPO, BUN,AST, ALT, TBARS, p47^(phox), or gp91^(phox) in a subject or an increasein the activity of caspase 3, 6, and 9 in the subject may provide anindication of organ damage. Other organ system damage that may berecovered by the nitrated lipids may be found in Wang et al.“Nitro-oleic acid protects against endotoxin-induced endotoxemia andmultiorgan injury in mice”, AJP-Renal Physiol. 298(3): F754-F762 (2010).

The disclosed methods encompass a variety of toxic medical therapies. Bytoxic medical therapy it is meant a medical therapy that involvesadministration of an agent that is capable of producing toxicity innormal tissues. The agent may be chemical or physical. Chemical agentsinclude, but are not limited to, alkylating agents, anti-metabolites,alkaloids and terpenes, topoisomerase inhibitors, antibiotics,monoclonal antibodies, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, nanoparticles, andhormones. Examples of antibiotics include, but are not limited to,actinomycin, anthracyclines, and other cytotoxic antibiotics.Anthracyclines include, but are not limited to, doxorubicin(Adriamycin), daunorubicin, valrubicin, idarubicin, epirubicin, whichalso inhibit topoisomerase II. Cytotoxic antibiotics include, but arenot limited to, bleomycin, plicamycin, mitomycin. Bleomycin acts in aunique way through oxidation of a DNA-bleomycin-Fe(II) complex andforming free radicals, which induce damage and chromosomal aberrations.

Examples of alkylating agents include, but are not limited to,cisplatin, mechlorethamine, cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, carboplatin,ifosfamide, and oxaliplatin. Examples of anti-metabolites include, butare not limited to azathioprine, mercaptopurine, and other purine andpyrimidine analogues. Examples of alkaloids and terpenes include, butare not limited to, vinca alkaloids, etoposide, teniposide, paclitaxel,taxanes, podophyllotoxins, and docetaxel. Examples of vinca alkaloidsinclude, but are not limited to, vincristine, vinblastine, vinorelbine,and vindesine.

Examples of topoisomerase inhibitors include, but are not limited to,irinotecan, topotecan, etoposide, etoposide phosphate, teniposide,semisynthetic derivatives of epipodophyllotoxins, and amsacrine.Examples of monoclonal antibodies include, but are not limited to,trastuzumab, cetuximab, rituximab, and bevacizumab. Examples of hormonesinclude, but are not limited to, steroids such as dexamethasone,finasteride, aromatase inhibitors, tamoxifen, and goserelin. Otherexamples of chemical agents include, but are not limited to, contrastagents, NSAIDS, COX-2 inhibitors, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and lithium. Anexample of a physical agent includes, but is not limited to, radiation.By way of example only, the radiation may be ionizing radiation, protontherapy, electrochemotherapy, or laser radiation.

In the disclosed methods, the nitrated lipids are administered to asubject in an effective amount. An effective amount is an amount that 1)prevents the subject from experiencing any of the disclosed side effectsassociated with any of the disclosed toxic medical therapies; 2) reducesthe subject's side effects relative to the subject's side effects priorto administration of the nitrated lipid; and/or eliminates the subject'sside effects relative to the subject's side effects prior toadministration of the nitrated lipid. By way of example only, in someembodiments, the side effect is urinary system damage comprising damageto one or more kidneys. In this illustrative example, the effectiveamount is an amount that prevents, reduces, or eliminates the damage tothe kidneys. The damage to the kidneys may include, but is not limitedto, any of the types of damage described above.

In one embodiment, the nitrated lipids act as a signaling moleculecapable of activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors(PPARs), inhibiting nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer ofactivated B cells (NF-κB), and releasing Nitrous Oxide (NO) in responseto at least one toxic medical therapy. In one embodiment, in response toa toxic medical therapy, the nitrated lipids may attenuateglomerulosclerosis, podocyte loss, and tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Inone embodiment, in response to a toxic medical therapy, the nitratedlipids reduce oxidative stress including plasma and urinary TBARS,reduce expression of NAD(P)H oxidase p47^(phox) and gp91^(phox), andsuppress inflammation including expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and MCP-1 inresponse to a toxic medical therapy. In one embodiment, the nitratedlipids exert a renoprotective action against toxic medical therapies viaanti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties, as supported by theexamples below. All three PPAR subtypes a, 8, and y, shareanti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, they may protect againstrenal I/R injury via different mechanisms. PPARα provided protectionlikely via activation of fatty acid β-oxidation, a mechanism that alsoappeared to protect against cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity, whilePPARδ may act via activation of the PKB/Akt pathway, leading to theincreased spread of renal tubular epithelial cells. The nitrated lipidsactivate all three PPAR subtypes to provide anti-inflammatory protectionagainst toxic medical therapies.

In another embodiment, the mechanism of action of the nitrated lipids inresponse to a toxic medical therapy protects podocytes and preventsalbuminuria, hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipidemia and ascites. Podocytes playa crucial role in regulation of glomerular function. Injury to podocytescan disrupt the structural and functional integrity of the slitdiaphragm leading to proteinuria. WT1 is a pivotal transcription factorthat is essential for the maintenance of the differentiated features ofadult podocytes. In response to a toxic medical therapy, nitrated lipidssignificantly preserve the expression of WT1 proteins and preventdownregulation of WT1 proteins. In another embodiment, nitrated lipidsreverse the mRNA reduction of epithelial marker ZO-1 and the mRNAincrease of the Mesenchymal marker desmin in response to a toxic medicaltherapy. Tight junction protein ZO-1 is a protein that in humans isencoded by the TJP1 gene. ZO-1 is a protein located on a cytoplasmicmembrane surface of intercellular tight junctions. The encoded proteinmay be involved in signal transduction at cell-cell junctions. Desmin isa protein that in humans is encoded by the DES gene. Desmin is a typeIII intermediate filament found near the Z line in sarcomeres. Desmin isa 52 kD protein that is a subunit of intermediate filaments in skeletalmuscle tissue, smooth muscle tissue, and cardiac muscle tissue. Inanother embodiment, in response to a medical therapy, the nitratedlipids ameliorate glomeruloseclerosis, alleviate the accumulation ofmesangial matrix, attenuate the prominent tubular dilation, reduce theintraluminal protein casts, improve the narrow Bowman's capsule, andattenuate of albuminuria.

In one embodiment, pretreatment with nitrated lipids before theadministration of a toxic medical therapy ameliorates albuminuriaconcomitantly with a reduction of plasma thiobarbituric acid-reactivesubstances (TBARS) levels. NADPH oxidase system is a majorsuperoxide-generating system contributing to ROS generation in ChronicKidney Disease (CKD) including nephropathy in response to a toxicmedical therapy. Nitrated lipids significantly attenuate ADR-inducedup-regulation of NADPH oxidase subunit gp91^(phox) and p47^(phox) atboth mRNA and protein levels; gp91^(phox) and p47^(phox) are ofparticular importance as the former contains the catalytic domain andthe latter is necessary for cytosolic subunit translocation and forinitiation of NADPH oxidase assembly in kidney. Nitrated lipids includean antioxidant property by suppressing NADPH oxidase expression toaccount for the renoprotective action in a pretreatment step beforeadministration of a toxic medical therapy.

Inflammation is an important component of pathophysiology of toxicmedical therapies, such as ADR nephropathy. Tubulointerstitialinflammation with infiltration of T and B lymphocytes and macrophagesoccurs in response to a toxic medical therapy, such as ADR. Macrophagesplay a pivotal role in the disease process of ADR nephropathy and otherimmunosuppressive actions of toxic medical therapies. Excessive renalproduction of proinflammatory cytokines Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α),Interleukin 1 (IL-1β) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) in theearly stages of ADR nephropathy. In one embodiment, administration ofnitrated lipids significantly inhibits the induction of theproinflammatory cytokines Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), Interleukin 1(IL-1β) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1) in response to atoxic medical therapy. Nitrated lipids attenuate the endotoxin-elicitedinflammatory response via diverse mechanisms involving activation ofmitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase 1 and nitroalkylation ofNF-κB p65 in response to a toxic medical therapy. Moreover, nitratedlipids have anti-inflammatory and renoprotective action inendotoxin-induced endotoxemia in response to a toxic medical therapy asto amerliorate the production of proinflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-αand IL-1η) and adhesion molecules (i.e., ICAM1), which may involve notonly neutrophils but also other inflammatory cells such as macrophagesand lymphocytes.

As is understood by those of skill in the art, specific effectiveamounts of the nitrated lipids to be administered will vary dependingupon a variety of factors, e.g., the condition to be treated, the age,body weight, general health, sex, and diet of the subject, the doseintervals, and the administration route. In some embodiments, theeffective amount of the nitrated lipid ranges from about 1μg per day toabout 1 g per day, from about 1 mg per day to about 500 mg per day, fromabout 1 mg per day to about 100 mg per day, or from about 2 mg per dayto about 10 mg per day.

Any of the nitrated lipids disclosed herein may be administered to thesubject alone or in combination with one or more other therapeuticagents. By “administered in combination,” it is meant that the nitratedlipids and the therapeutic agents may be administered as a singlecomposition, simultaneously as separate doses, or sequentially.Sequential administration refers to administering the nitrated lipidsand at least one therapeutic agent either before or after the other. Avariety of therapeutic agents may be used, including, but not limitedto, those useful in the treatment of the underlying condition, disease,or disorder giving rise to any of the toxic medical therapies disclosedherein.

The nitrated lipids may be administered to a subject via any number ofpharmaceutical formulations and administration routes. The formulationscan take the form of granules, powders, tablets, capsules, syrup,suppositories, injections, emulsions, elixirs, suspensions or solutions.These formulations may further include a variety of well-knownpharmaceutically acceptable additives, carriers, and/or excipients asnecessary. The formulations may be delivered to the subject by variousroutes of administration, e.g., by topical administration, transdermaladministration, oral administration, by nasal administration, rectaladministration, subcutaneous injection, intravenous injection,intramuscular injection, or intraperitoneal injection. Any of theformulations, delivery methods, and pharmaceutically acceptableadditives, carriers, and excipients disclosed in U.S. Patent PublicationNo. 2007/0232579 may also be used with the methods described herein.Another possible route of administration includes incorporating thenitrated lipid into various food products. Food products, include, butare not limited to butter, margarine, vegetable oils, and the like.

The subjects of the disclosed methods include any animal that canbenefit from the administration of a nitrated lipid. In someembodiments, the subject is a mammal, e.g., a human, a primate, a dog, acat, a horse, a cow, a pig, or a rodent, e.g., a rat or mouse.Typically, the mammal is a human. In some aspects, the subject isundergoing or has undergone any of the disclosed toxic medicaltherapies. Such subjects may or may not actually be experiencing any ofthe disclosed side effects. In other aspects, the subject has not yetundergone the toxic medical therapy, but is susceptible to any of thedisclosed side effects because of an imminent toxic medical therapy.

As will be understood by one skilled in the art, for any and allpurposes, particularly in terms of providing a written description, allranges disclosed herein also encompass any and all possible subrangesand combinations of subranges thereof. Any listed range can be easilyrecognized as sufficiently describing and enabling the same range beingbroken down into at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths,tenths, etc. As a non-limiting example, each range discussed herein canbe readily broken down into a lower third, middle third and upper third,etc. As will also be understood by one skilled in the art all languagesuch as “up to,” “at least,” “greater than,” “less than,” and the likeinclude the number recited and refer to ranges which can be subsequentlybroken down into subranges as discussed above. Finally, as will beunderstood by one skilled in the art, a range includes each individualmember. Thus, for example, a group having 1-3 atoms refers to groupshaving 1, 2, or 3 atoms. Similarly, a group having 1-5 atoms refers togroups having 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 atoms, and so forth.

All publications, patent applications, issued patents, and otherdocuments referred to in this specification are herein incorporated byreference as if each individual publication, patent application, issuedpatent, or other document was specifically and individually indicated tobe incorporated by reference in its entirety. Definitions that arecontained in text incorporated by reference are excluded to the extentthat they contradict definitions in this disclosure.

For the purposes of this disclosure and unless otherwise specified, “a”or “an” means “one or more.”

The present invention, thus generally described, will be understood morereadily by reference to the following examples, which are provided byway of illustration and are not intended to be limiting of the presentinvention.

EXAMPLES

Materials and Methods

Animals.

Male 3-4-month-old B6129SF2/J mice were from Jackson Laboratories (BarHarbor, Me.). All animals were housed in an air-conditioned room with a12-hour light/dark cycle. All procedures and protocols were inaccordance with guidelines set by the Laboratory Animal Care Committeeat the University of Utah.

Materials.

9-Nitrooleic acid and 10-nitrooleic acid are two regioisomers ofnitrooleic acid (OA-NO₂), which are formed by nitration of oleic acid inapproximately equal proportions in vivo. The two compounds werepurchased from Cayman Chemicals (Ann Arbor, Mich.) (9-nitrooleic acid:Cat#10008042; 10-nitrooleic acid: Cat#10008043) and used as an 1:1mixture of the isomers.

Protocols for Animal Experiments.

Protocol for testing effects of OA-NO₂ on cisplatin-induced toxicity inB6129SF2/J mice. B6129S2/J mice (male, 3-4-mo-old) received vehicle(saline) or a single i.p. (intraperitoneal) injection of cisplatin alone(20 mg/kg in saline). After 20 minutes, the cisplatin group was randomlydivided to receive an i.p. injection of OA-NO₂ (400 mg/kg in ethanol) oran equivalent amount of ethanol at 6-hour intervals for 48 hours. Thecontrol group also received an i.p. injection of the equivalent amountof ethanol at the same frequencies. At the end of the experiments, underisoflurane anesthesia, blood was withdrawn from the vena cava using 1 ccinsulin syringe and kidneys were harvested for analysis of morphologyand gene expression.

Example 1

Evaluation of the Therapeutic Potential for Using Nitrated Fatty AcidOA-N0₂ in Managing Chemotherapy-Related Toxicity

A single dose of i.p. injection of cisplatin induced renal dysfunctionas indicated by the marked rise in plasma BUN (FIG. 1), accompanied bysevere renal histological abnormalities characterized by distortion ofthe overall renal morphology, dilation of renal tubules, and appearanceof protein cast (FIG. 2). In a sharp contrast, posttreatment with OA-NO₂markedly attenuated these functional and pathological changes (FIGS.1-2). Cisplatin treatment induced increases in plasma level of MPO(marker of neutrophil infiltration) (FIG. 3), kidney expression of NADPHoxidase subunits p47^(phox) and gp91^(phox) (major superoxide generatingenzyme) (FIG. 4), kidney thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS,index of oxidative stress) (FIG. 5), and activity of caspase (index ofapoptosis) (FIG. 6A), all of which were attenuated or completelycorrected by OA-NO₂. In cultured human proximal tubular cells (HK2),exposure to 1.0 μM cisplatin induced a 3-fold increase in caspaseactivity that was almost completely normalized by OA-NO₂ (FIG. 6B).

Materials and Methods

Animals and Treatments

Male BABL/C mice were purchased from the Jackson Laboratories (BarHarbor, Me., USA). Mice were maintained in a temperature-controlledbarrier facility with a 12: 12-h light-dark cycle and were given freeaccess to standard laboratory chow and tap water. Mice were randomizedinto three groups: 1) control, 2) Adriamycin (ADR), and 3)ADR+nitro-oleic acid (OA-NO₂). In Group 3, OA-NO₂ (dissolved in ethanol)was administered at 5 mg/kg/day via subcutaneously implanted osmoticmini-pump and vehicle (ethanol) was given to the other two groups. Thisdose was chosen based a previous study (35). After 2 days ofpretreatment with OA-NO₂, Groups 2 and 3 received a single tail veininjection of ADR at 10 mg/kg. Group 1 received a single tail veininjection of saline. Twenty four-hour urine was collected with usingmetabolic cages. Seven days after ADR treatment, all mice were killedand kidneys were immediately harvested gene expression or histologicalanalyses. All protocols employing mice were conducted in accordance theprinciples and guidance of the University of Utah Institutional AnimalCare and Committee.

Measurement of Biochemical Parameters

Urine samples were centrifuged for 5 minutes at 10,000 rpm. Bloodsamples from anesthetized mice were collected by puncturing the venacava using a 1-ml insulin syringe containing 50 μl of 1 mM EDTA in theabsence of protease inhibitors. Urine and plasma albumin was determinedusing a murine microalbuminuria enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit(Cat#1011, EXOCELL). Plasma triglyceride level was determined using aLabAssay Triglyceride ELISA Kit (Cat#290-63701, WAKO). Urine and plasmalevels of urea were measured by Urea Nitrogen Direct kit (Cat#0580-250,Stanbio Laboratory,), and urine and plasma levels of creatinine weremeasured by Creatinine Liquicolor kit (Cat#0420-250, StanbioLaboratory).

Morphological Studies

Under anesthesia, kidneys were removed and fixed with 4%paraformaldehyde. The tissues were subsequently embedded in paraffin and4-μm sections were cut and stained with periodic acid Schiff (PAS).Glomerular sclerosis was assessed as follows using a semiquantitativescore: grade 0, normal appearance; grade I, involvement of up to 25% ofthe glomerulus; grade II, involvement of 25 to 50% of the glomerulus;grade III, involvement of 50 to 75% of the glomerulus; grade IV,involvement of 75 to 100% of the glomerulus. A glomerulosclerosis index(GSI) was calculated by multiplying the number of glomeruli with asclerosis score of I by one, the number with a score of II by two, IIIby three, and IV by four. These values were summed and divided by thenumber of glomeruli assessed, including those with a sclerosis score ofzero. The SI for each kidney specimen was a sum of the points from 30glomeruli. Tubulointerstitial injury (defined as tubular atrophy,dilatation, thickening of the basement membrane, protein cast) bysemiquantitative analysis. Thirty cortical fields from each animal wereexamined at ×200 magnification and graded according to a scale of 0 to4: 0, no tubulointerstitial injury 1, <25% of the tubulointerstitiuminjured; 2, 25% to 50% of the tubulointerstitium injured; 3, 51% to 75%of the tubulointerstitium injured; and 4, 76% to 100% of thetubulointerstitium injured. All sections were examined in blind manner.

Immunohistochemistry

Immunohistochemical staining was performed. Anti-WT1 antibody waspurchased from Dako (Mob437, Dako).

qRT-PCR

Total RNA was isolated using TRIzol (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.), andfirst-strand cDNAs were synthesized from 2 μg of total RNA in 20 mlreaction using SuperScript (Invitrogen). The first strand cDNAs servedas the template for quantitative PCR performed in Applied Biosystems7900 Real Time PCR System using SYBR green PCR reagent (AppliedBiosystems, Foster City, Calif., USA). The amplification was carried outfor 40 cycles with conditions of 15-s denaturation at 95° C. Thesequence of oligonucleotides used for qPCR (RT-PCR) is listed asfollows: GAPDH sense: 5′-GTC TTCACTACCATGGAGAAGG-3′ and antisense:5′-TCATGGATGACCTTGGCC AG-3′; Fibronectin (FN) sense:5′-CGTGGAGCAAGAAGGACAA-3′ and antisense: 5′-GTGAGTCTGCGGTTGGTAAA-3; SMAαsense: 5′-CCCTGAAGAGCATCC GACA-3′ and antisense:5′-CCAGAGTCCAGCACAATACC-3′; TGF-β sense: 5′-TAC GCCTGAGTGGCTGTCTT-3′ andantisense: 5′-CGTGGAGTTTGTTATCTTTGCT-3′; ZO-I sense:5′-GCGCGGAGAGAGACAAGA-3′ and antisense: 5′-CTGGCCCTC CTTTTAACACA-3′;p47^(pho)x sense: 5′-CACTCCCTTTGCTTCCATCT-3′ and antisense:5′-ATGTTGCTATCCCAGCCAGT-3′; gp91^(phox) sense: 5′-CCGTATTGTGGGAGACTGGA-3′ and antisense: 5′-CTTGAGAATGGAGGCAAAGG-3′; Desmin sense:5′-GTGGATGCAGCCACTCTAGC-3′ and antisense: 5′-TTAGCCGCGATG GTCCATAC-3;TNF-α sense: 5′-TCCCCAAAGGGATGAGAAG-3′ and antisense:5′-CACTTGGTGGTTTGCTACGA-3′; IL-1, β sense: 5′-ACTGTGAAATGCCACTTT TG-3′and antisense: 5′-TGTTGATGTGCTGCTGTGAG-3; MCP-1 sense: 5′-GCTCTCTCTTCCTCCACCAC-3′ and antisense: 5′-ACAGCTTCTTTGGGACACCT-3′. Collagentype III sense: 5′-AGGCAACAGTGGTTCTCCTG-3′ and reverse 5′-GACCTCGTGCTCCAGTTAGC-3′.

Immunoblotting

The kidney lysates were stored at −80° C. until assayed. Proteinconcentrations were determined using Coomassie reagent. An equal amountof the whole tissue protein was denatured at 100° C. for 10 min,separated by SDS-PAGE, and transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes.The blots were blocked overnight with 5% nonfat dry milk inTris-buffered saline (TBS), followed by incubation for 1 h primaryantibody. The blots were washed with TBS followed by incubation withhorseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody. Immune complexeswere detected using ECL methods. The immunoreactive bands werequantified using the Gel and Graph Digitizing System (Silk Scientific,Tustin, Calif.).

Measurement of Thiobarbituric Acid-Reactive Substances

The measurement of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) inthe mouse kidney was based on the formation of malondialdehyde (MDA) byusing a commercially available TBARS Assay kit (catalog no. 10009055,Cayman Chemical) according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Statistical Analysis

All values are represented as means±SE. Data were analyzed usingunpaired t-test or ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni posttest. Differenceswere considered to be significant when P<0.05.

EXAMPLE 2

OA-N0₂ Attenuates Albuminuria and Renal Dysfunction in ManagingChemotherapy-Related Toxicity

BALB/c mice were administered vehicle, ADR, or ADR in combination ofOA-NO₂; OA-NO₂ was delivered via osmotic mini-pump 2 days prior to ADRinjection. At day 5 after ADR injection, albuminuria was most evident inADR group (508.89±48.52 μg/24 h) as compared with control group(33.39±3.50 μg/24 h), and was attenuated in ADR+OA-NO₂ group(342.40±33.26 μg/24 h). These changes were observed at day 3 andmaintained at day 7. At day 7, plasma albumin was significantly reducedin the ADR group (0.28±0.08 g/dl) as compared with control group(1.01±0.15 g/d1) and was significantly restored in ADR+OA-NO₂ group, thedecrease of plasma albumin levels were significantly attenuated(0.58±0.13 g/dl), as shown in FIG. 8A. Ninety percent of ADR mice hadsevere ascites at sacrifice contrasting to only 20% of ADR+OA-NO₂ micehaving mild ascites, as shown in FIG. 8B.

ADR mice developed severe hyperlipidemia (plasma triglyceride:396.18±70.94 mg/dl) that was less in ADR+OA-NO₂ group (plasmatriglyceride: 212.70±39.22 mg/dl) (FIG. 3A). Plasma creatinine and BUNwere determined to reflect renal function. ADR mice had elevated plasmacreatinine and BUN, both of which were significantly attenuated inADR+OA-NO₂ group, as shown in FIGS. 9B-9C.

EXAMPLE 3

OA-N0₂ Attenuates Glomerular Injury and Renal Fibrosis in ManagingChemotherapy-Related Toxicity

To correlate the reduction of albuminuria to glomerular structure, theeffect of drug treatments on glomerulosclerosis was assessed by periodicacid-Schiff (PAS) staining. Being consistent with the data onalbuminuria, the ADR mice showed marked glomerulosclerosis as evidencedby mesangial expansion and increased accumulation of extracellularmatrix (ECM) in the mesangium, as shown in FIG. 8A. A semiquantitativeglomerulosclerotic index of kidney sections confirmed the histologicaldata. The ADR mice showed the highest score, and OA-NO₂ treatment led toa marked reduction in the index (P<0.05), as shown in FIG. 8B.

Because podocyte injury is an early and predominant pathologic featureof ADR model, expression of a number of podocyte markers was examined.WT1 is a pivotal transcription factor that is essential for themaintenance of the differentiated features of adult podocytes. Asillustrated in FIGS. 11A & 11B, immunoblotting revealed a markedreduction of WT1 after ADR injury compared with controls, OA-NO₂pretreatment prevented the down-regulation of WT1 in the ADR mice(P<0.05). The number of podocytes was semi-quantitatively analyzed byimmunohistochemical analysis of WT-1. The number of WT1-positive cellswas reduced in the ADR group and was partially restored in theADR+OA-NO₂ group, as shown in FIGS. 11C & 11D. qRT-PCR was performed toexamine mRNA expression of Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and desmin. RenalZO-1 mRNA exhibited a trend of reduction in the ADR group as comparedwith the control group and a significant elevation in the ADR+OA-NO₂group, as shown in FIG. 11E. Desmin mRNA was up-regulated in the ADRmice, and treatment with OA-NO₂ prevented this increase, as shown inFIG. 11F.

Renal fibrosis was examined by determining the expression of α-SMA andfibronectin (FN) and TGF-β in the kidney. As shown in FIGS. 12A-12, ADRmice showed marked increases in α-SMA and fibronectin (FN) expression atthe mRNA levels relative to the control by real-time PCR (FIGS. 12A &12B), and Western blotting revealed marked up-regulation of α-SMA and FN(FIGS. 12C & 12D). The densitometric values of these two proteins areshown in FIGS. 12E & 12F. OA-NO₂ treatment prevented the up-regulationof α-SMA and FN in the ADR mice (P<0.05). In addition, the mRNAexpression of several other fibrosis/sclerosis-related genes in thekidney was up-regulated in the ADR mice, including TGF-β (FIG. 12G), andcollagen III (FIG. 12H). OA-NO₂ treatment induced a dramatic suppressionof these genes in the kidney (P<0.05). These data are consistent withthe antisclerotic effect of OA-NO₂ treatment.

EXAMPLE 4

OA-N0₂ hampers renal oxidative stress in managing chemotherapy-relatedtoxicity

Among many possible pathogenic factors, oxidative stress has emerged asan important pathogenic factor in the development of ADR nephropathy. Toinvestigate whether OA-NO₂ had antioxidative effect in ADR mice, plasmaand urinary levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS)was analyzed, which is a reliable product of lipid oxidation. As aresult, the ADR group showed a marked increase in plasma (FIG. 13A)urinary (FIG. 13B) and kidney (FIG. 13C) TBARS as compared to thecontrol group. Treatment with OA-NO₂ markedly attenuated ADR-inducedincrease in plasma and urinary TBARS as compared to ADR mice, as shownin FIGS. 13A & 13B. There was a trend of reduction of TBARS levels inresponse to OA-NO₂ treatment but this did not reach a statisticalsignificance. NAD(P)H oxidase is an important source of ROS generationin various pathological conditions. Renal expression of major subunitsof NAD(P)H oxidase was examined. As shown in FIGS. 14A & B, renal mRNAexpression of p47^(phox) and gp91^(phox) was significantly increased inADR mice as compared with the control group and the increase was less inthe ADR+OA-NO₂ group (P<0.05). The change in gp91^(phox) was furtherconfirmed at the protein level (P<0.01; FIGS. 14C & 14D).

EXAMPLE 5

OA-NO₂ Hampers Renal Inflammation in Managing Chemotherapy-RelatedToxicity

ADR induces proinflammatory response in the kidney, releasing cytokinesand chemokines responsible for subsequent kidney injury. To examinewhether OA-NO₂ could reduce inflammation, qRT-PCR analysis of TNF-α,IL-1β, and MCP-1 was performed. The renal expression of theseproinflammatory mediators was in induce din parallel in ADR mice and theinductions were all suppressed by OA-NO₂ as shown in FIGS. 15A-15C.

EXAMPLE 6

Prophetic Examples

A 50 year old is diagnosed with invasive lung cancer. The cancer isvisualized either clinically or radiographically, and the patientundergoes pretreatment or posttreatment with a nitrated lipid and thenexposed to chemotherapy or radiation. The chemotherapy may include achemical agent of at least one of the following: alkylating agents,anti-metabolites, alkaloids and terpenes, topoisomerase inhibitors,antibiotics, monoclonal antibodies, tyrosine kinase inhibitors,nanoparticles, hormones, contrast agents, NSAIDS, COX-2 inhibitors, ACEinhibitors, ARBs, and lithium. Alternatively, patient is exposed tophysical agent including at least one of the following: ionizingradiation, proton therapy, electrochemotherapy, or laser radiation.After chemotherapy or radiation, the nitrated lipid lessens a sideeffect of the chemotherapy or radiation including at least one of: organsystem damage, nausea, vomiting, and hair loss. The patient experiencesan improved clinical outcome.

In the above example, the patient's organ systems including at least oneof: the urinary system, the digestive system, the nervous system, theauditory system, the circulatory system, the endocrine system, theexcretory system, the skeletal system, the respiratory system, thereproductive system, the muscular system, the lymphatic system, immunesystem, integumentary system, and the integumentary system. The tissuesare injected by radiographic guidance or direct visualization duringmediastinoscopy or surgery. Following injection, it is noticed thatthere may be less side effects of the chemotherapy or radiation.Nitrated lipid administration may be repeated in intervals as necessary.

The mechanism of action of the nitrated lipid on the chemical agent asto relieve the side effects is dependent on the chemical agent's mode ofaction in chemotherapy. Alkylating agents are so named because of theirability to alkylate many nucleophilic functional groups under conditionspresent in cells and impair cell function by forming covalent bonds withthe amino, carboxyl, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups in biologicallyimportant molecules, such as DNA. Nitrated lipids may decrease sideeffects of alkylating agents by attenuating plasma level of MPO (markerof neutrophil infiltration), attenuating expression of NADPH oxidasesubunits p47^(phox) and gp91^(phox) (major superoxide generatingenzyme), attenuating thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS,index of oxidative stress), and attenuating activity of caspase (indexof apoptosis).

Anti-metabolites masquerade as purines (azathioprine, mercaptopurine) orpyrimidines which become the building-blocks of DNA. Anti-metabolitesprevent these substances from becoming incorporated into DNA during the“S” phase (of the cell cycle), stopping normal development and division.Anti-metabolites also affect RNA synthesis and due to their efficiency,Anti-metabolites are the most widely used cytostatics. Nitrated lipidsmay decrease side effects of alkylating agents by inhibiting NF-κB,preserve expression of WT1 proteins, prevent downregulation of WT1proteins, reverse the mRNA reduction of epithelial marker ZO-1, inhibitproduction of proinflammatory cytokines Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α),Interleukin 1 (IL-Iβ) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1),attenuate ADR-induced up-regulation of NADPH oxidase subunit gp91^(phox)and p47^(phox) at both mRNA and protein levels. Alkaloids are derivedfrom plants and block cell division by preventing microtubule function,bind to specific sites on tubulin, inhibiting the assembly of tubulininto microtubules. Topoisomerases are essential enzymes that maintainthe topology of DNA. Inhibition of type I or type II topoisomerasesinterferes with both transcription and replication of DNA by upsettingproper DNA supercoiling. Nitrated lipids may decrease side effects ofalkaloids and topoisomerases by inhibiting NF-κB, preserve expression ofWT1 proteins, prevent downregulation of WT1 proteins, reverse the mRNAreduction of epithelial marker ZO-1, inhibit production ofproinflammatory cytokines Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), Interleukin 1(IL-Iβ), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), Cyclooxygenase-2(COX-2), ICAM-1. VCAM-1, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1),attenuate ADR-induced up-regulation of NADPH oxidase subunit gp91^(phox)and p47^(phox) at both mRNA and protein levels. Nitrated lipids maydecrease side effects of alkaloids by inhibiting NF-KB, preserveexpression of WT1 proteins, prevent downregulation of WT1 proteins,reverse the mRNA reduction of epithelial marker ZO-1, inhibit productionof proinflammatory cytokines Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), Interleukin1 (IL-1β) and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), attenuateADR-induced up-regulation of NADPH oxidase subunit gp91^(phox) andp47^(phox) at both mRNA and protein levels.

While various aspects and embodiments have been disclosed herein, otheraspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art.The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes ofillustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scopeand spirit being indicated by the following claims. While the inventionhas been described in connection with various embodiments, it will beunderstood that the invention is capable of further modifications. Thisapplication is intended to cover any variations, uses or adaptations ofthe invention following, in general, the principles of the invention,and including such departures from the present disclosure as, within theknown and customary practice within the art to which the inventionpertains.

1. A method of treating renal system damage in a subject, comprising:orally administering to the subject an effective amount of a nitratedfatty acid, wherein the renal system damage is selected from a groupconsisting of nephrotoxicity, distortion of the overall renalmorphology, dilation of renal tubules, appearance of protein cast,oxidative stress, necrosis, and apoptosis of organ cells.
 2. The methodof claim 1, wherein the nitrated fatty acid is a monosaturated fattyacid or a polyunsaturated fatty acid.
 3. The method of claim 2, whereinthe nitrated fatty acid is nitro-oleic acid.
 4. The method of claim 3,wherein the nitrated fatty acid is selected from the group consisting of9-nitrooelic acid, 10-nitrooleic acid, and combinations thereof.
 5. Themethod of claim 4, wherein the nitrated fatty acid is 9-nitrooelic acid.6. The method of claim 4, wherein the nitrated fatty acid is10-nitrooleic acid.
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the effectiveamount is from about 1 milligram per day to about 500 milligrams perday.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the effective amount is fromabout 1 milligram per day to about 500 milligrams per day.
 9. The methodof claim 1, wherein the renal system damage is nephrotoxicity.
 10. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the renal system damage is distortion of theoverall renal morphology.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the renalsystem damage is dilation of renal tubules.
 12. The method of claim 1,wherein the renal system damage is appearance of protein cast.
 13. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the renal system damage is oxidative stress.14. The method of claim 1, wherein the renal system damage is necrosis.15. The method of claim 1, wherein the renal system damage is apoptosisof organ cells.